{"id":"refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide","canonicalSlug":"refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide","url":"https://wellficent.com/en/news/refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide","language":"en","title":"Refinery Mass Balance and Processing Gain: Why More Volume Does Not Mean More Mass","summary":"A reproducible liquid-density example explains refinery processing gain, mass conservation, yield definitions and the boundary between crude intake and secondary-unit throughput.","body":["Refining can produce a larger liquid volume than the volume of crude supplied. That observation does not, by itself, establish extra mass, high energy efficiency or spare crude-processing capacity. Volume depends on density and reporting conditions, while a material balance must account for every relevant input, output and change in inventory.","This guide combines EIA definitions with a deliberately simplified, hypothetical batch calculation. All supplied densities refer to stable liquids at the same assumed 15 °C and 101.325 kPa. They are prescribed example inputs, not measured assays or density corrections derived from API gravity. The chart is calculated from those inputs; the editorial illustration depicts no real facility or engineering design."],"keyPoints":[],"sections":[{"heading":"Choose the boundary and the reporting period","paragraphs":["First decide whether the balance covers a distillation unit, a conversion unit, a tank system or the entire refinery. Identify the calendar interval and the inventory included at its start and end. Crude delivered to a terminal need not equal crude charged to a process during that interval: some may enter or leave storage. Products manufactured need not equal products dispatched. A comparison of two annual totals therefore needs their definitions, not merely matching years. Keep the mass basis, volume reference conditions and time denominator alongside the values. A figure in tonnes is not interchangeable with barrels, and a batch volume has no daily-rate meaning until a time basis is supplied."]},{"heading":"Write the material balance before calculating yield","paragraphs":["For a defined period, the total mass equation is ΔM = Σm_in − Σm_out, where ΔM is the increase in inventory inside the boundary. At steady inventory, inputs and outputs balance. In a real refinery, the chosen boundary may require imported hydrogen, other feedstocks, water or steam, gas products, recovered sulfur, wastewater, fuel consumed and losses to be accounted for. Streams excluded from a hydrocarbon-only reporting convention must be identified. Chemical reactions rearrange material; they do not remove the need to balance mass. Heat duty, power and economic margin are separate balances. A high volumetric yield alone cannot establish thermal efficiency or profitability. If combustion equipment is inside the total-mass boundary, combustion air and flue gas must also be included."]},{"heading":"Specify the hypothetical batch","paragraphs":["Assume 100,000 kg of feed with density 850 kg/m³. The output is prescribed as three separate liquid parcels: 45,000 kg at 740 kg/m³, 40,000 kg at 840 kg/m³ and 15,000 kg at 980 kg/m³. Call them light, middle and heavy liquids rather than assigning measured commercial product specifications. Their masses add exactly to 100,000 kg. The example deliberately excludes gas, water, sulfur products, fuel consumption, losses, additional feeds and inventory accumulation. It is a density-arithmetic exercise, not a refinery simulation, an achievable yield slate or a prediction for any mapped plant. Actual process design would need composition, reaction chemistry, phase behaviour and an energy balance."]},{"heading":"Calculate each liquid volume reproducibly","paragraphs":["Use V = m/ρ, with mass in kilograms and density in kg/m³, so the result is in cubic metres. The feed volume is 100000/850 = 117.647059 m³ after rounding. The light parcel occupies 45000/740 = 60.810811 m³; the middle parcel occupies 40000/840 = 47.619048 m³; and the heavy parcel occupies 15000/980 = 15.306122 m³. Retaining unrounded intermediate values gives a total product volume of 123.735981 m³. The accompanying chart compares this total with the feed volume on the same reference basis. It does not add a total row to its own components, compare gas standard volume with liquid volume or imply a daily throughput."]},{"heading":"Separate volumetric increase from mass residual","paragraphs":["The calculated volume difference is 6.088922 m³. The relative increase is (V_out/V_in − 1) × 100 = 5.175584%, or 5.18% after rounding. The mass residual remains 100000 − (45000 + 40000 + 15000) = 0 kg. The larger sum of separate product volumes follows from the supplied mass distribution and densities. It is not extra material. These parcels have not been mixed together, so no volume-additive blending law is being assumed. EIA’s January 2024 refining-model description explains processing gain through conversion of heavy feeds to lower-density products. Our arithmetic illustrates the density principle; it does not reproduce an observed EIA gain series or model the chemistry that creates a real product slate."]},{"heading":"Read the yield definition used by the dataset","paragraphs":["A mass fraction, a liquid-volume fraction and an official refinery-yield statistic are different quantities. EIA’s current glossary defines its denominator using crude oil, hydrogen, other hydrocarbons and net unfinished-oil inputs, and specifies adjustments for finished motor gasoline, aviation gasoline and distillate fuel oil. It also explains a methodological change for data before January 2009. Consequently, the example’s 45% light-liquid mass share is not an EIA gasoline yield. For comparisons across reports or years, retain product scope, denominator, net-versus-gross treatment, stock changes and method version. Do not silently harmonise a published statistic by substituting a convenient denominator."]},{"heading":"Do not add serial unit capacities","paragraphs":["Suppose a hypothetical primary unit accepts 100,000 bbl/day and a vacuum unit treating its residue has a 50,000 bbl/day rating. Their sum does not establish 150,000 bbl/day of fresh-crude intake. Part of the same material passes through both units. Secondary units may also process imported intermediates, so their boundaries require separate feed accounting. Calendar-day and stream-day ratings must also remain distinct. The linked capacity guide explains those denominators; the density guide explains compatible mass–volume conversion. A mass-balance calculation cannot validate a nameplate rating, demonstrate that a unit is available today or convert a product-storage volume into crude-distillation capacity.","An actual boundary example is Nashpa in Pakistan’s Karak district. Joint-venture participant GHPL describes an integrated oil and gas processing facility with LPG extraction, reporting gas, crude/condensate handling and LPG on different measurement bases. A liquid-handling figure expressed in barrels per day does not, by that unit alone, establish atmospheric crude-distillation capacity. Field separation, gas treatment and liquid handling must retain their own process identities in an engineering comparison. The 11 November 2026 Atlas review therefore classifies this record as field/gas processing and preserves its unknown operating state and absent crude-distillation capacity value. A historical commissioning account does not establish present availability. The direct facility record and participant’s project description allow readers to inspect that scope without inventing a well-to-plant connection."]},{"heading":"Use plant documents within their actual scope","paragraphs":["Angola’s 2024 sector yearbook separately records crude deliveries to Malongo’s crude-distillation plant and production of refined products. Those headings support process identity, but dividing the two totals without inventory and other-stream reconciliation does not close an engineering material balance. At Naftan, UNIS documents AT-8 crude distillation and a dated reconstruction project. The equipment number does not define current throughput; the page’s historical ratings need their own scopes. These reviewed Atlas records retain their existing capacity and operating-state fields. Similarly, stopped crude units and remaining MTBE/intermediate processing at Tisza must be distinguished from whole-site closure."]},{"heading":"Make the calculation auditable","paragraphs":["An auditable balance preserves stream identity, quantity, unit, reference temperature and pressure, measurement period, inventory treatment and source. Keep measured observations separate from assumed inputs and calculated outputs. Investigate a nonzero residual through missing streams, incompatible conditions, stock movements and measurement uncertainty before calling it a process loss or gain. This example supplies no uncertainty estimate because its inputs are prescribed, not measured; additional decimal places are calculation precision only. It also supplies no refinery margin, energy-efficiency score or operating forecast. The source links, direct facility records, accessible chart table and related engineering guides let readers trace each distinct part of the analysis."]}],"text":"Refinery Mass Balance and Processing Gain: Why More Volume Does Not Mean More Mass\n\nA reproducible liquid-density example explains refinery processing gain, mass conservation, yield definitions and the boundary between crude intake and secondary-unit throughput.\n\nRefining can produce a larger liquid volume than the volume of crude supplied. That observation does not, by itself, establish extra mass, high energy efficiency or spare crude-processing capacity. Volume depends on density and reporting conditions, while a material balance must account for every relevant input, output and change in inventory.\n\nThis guide combines EIA definitions with a deliberately simplified, hypothetical batch calculation. All supplied densities refer to stable liquids at the same assumed 15 °C and 101.325 kPa. They are prescribed example inputs, not measured assays or density corrections derived from API gravity. The chart is calculated from those inputs; the editorial illustration depicts no real facility or engineering design.\n\nChoose the boundary and the reporting period\n\nFirst decide whether the balance covers a distillation unit, a conversion unit, a tank system or the entire refinery. Identify the calendar interval and the inventory included at its start and end. Crude delivered to a terminal need not equal crude charged to a process during that interval: some may enter or leave storage. Products manufactured need not equal products dispatched. A comparison of two annual totals therefore needs their definitions, not merely matching years. Keep the mass basis, volume reference conditions and time denominator alongside the values. A figure in tonnes is not interchangeable with barrels, and a batch volume has no daily-rate meaning until a time basis is supplied.\n\nWrite the material balance before calculating yield\n\nFor a defined period, the total mass equation is ΔM = Σm_in − Σm_out, where ΔM is the increase in inventory inside the boundary. At steady inventory, inputs and outputs balance. In a real refinery, the chosen boundary may require imported hydrogen, other feedstocks, water or steam, gas products, recovered sulfur, wastewater, fuel consumed and losses to be accounted for. Streams excluded from a hydrocarbon-only reporting convention must be identified. Chemical reactions rearrange material; they do not remove the need to balance mass. Heat duty, power and economic margin are separate balances. A high volumetric yield alone cannot establish thermal efficiency or profitability. If combustion equipment is inside the total-mass boundary, combustion air and flue gas must also be included.\n\nSpecify the hypothetical batch\n\nAssume 100,000 kg of feed with density 850 kg/m³. The output is prescribed as three separate liquid parcels: 45,000 kg at 740 kg/m³, 40,000 kg at 840 kg/m³ and 15,000 kg at 980 kg/m³. Call them light, middle and heavy liquids rather than assigning measured commercial product specifications. Their masses add exactly to 100,000 kg. The example deliberately excludes gas, water, sulfur products, fuel consumption, losses, additional feeds and inventory accumulation. It is a density-arithmetic exercise, not a refinery simulation, an achievable yield slate or a prediction for any mapped plant. Actual process design would need composition, reaction chemistry, phase behaviour and an energy balance.\n\nCalculate each liquid volume reproducibly\n\nUse V = m/ρ, with mass in kilograms and density in kg/m³, so the result is in cubic metres. The feed volume is 100000/850 = 117.647059 m³ after rounding. The light parcel occupies 45000/740 = 60.810811 m³; the middle parcel occupies 40000/840 = 47.619048 m³; and the heavy parcel occupies 15000/980 = 15.306122 m³. Retaining unrounded intermediate values gives a total product volume of 123.735981 m³. The accompanying chart compares this total with the feed volume on the same reference basis. It does not add a total row to its own components, compare gas standard volume with liquid volume or imply a daily throughput.\n\nSeparate volumetric increase from mass residual\n\nThe calculated volume difference is 6.088922 m³. The relative increase is (V_out/V_in − 1) × 100 = 5.175584%, or 5.18% after rounding. The mass residual remains 100000 − (45000 + 40000 + 15000) = 0 kg. The larger sum of separate product volumes follows from the supplied mass distribution and densities. It is not extra material. These parcels have not been mixed together, so no volume-additive blending law is being assumed. EIA’s January 2024 refining-model description explains processing gain through conversion of heavy feeds to lower-density products. Our arithmetic illustrates the density principle; it does not reproduce an observed EIA gain series or model the chemistry that creates a real product slate.\n\nRead the yield definition used by the dataset\n\nA mass fraction, a liquid-volume fraction and an official refinery-yield statistic are different quantities. EIA’s current glossary defines its denominator using crude oil, hydrogen, other hydrocarbons and net unfinished-oil inputs, and specifies adjustments for finished motor gasoline, aviation gasoline and distillate fuel oil. It also explains a methodological change for data before January 2009. Consequently, the example’s 45% light-liquid mass share is not an EIA gasoline yield. For comparisons across reports or years, retain product scope, denominator, net-versus-gross treatment, stock changes and method version. Do not silently harmonise a published statistic by substituting a convenient denominator.\n\nDo not add serial unit capacities\n\nSuppose a hypothetical primary unit accepts 100,000 bbl/day and a vacuum unit treating its residue has a 50,000 bbl/day rating. Their sum does not establish 150,000 bbl/day of fresh-crude intake. Part of the same material passes through both units. Secondary units may also process imported intermediates, so their boundaries require separate feed accounting. Calendar-day and stream-day ratings must also remain distinct. The linked capacity guide explains those denominators; the density guide explains compatible mass–volume conversion. A mass-balance calculation cannot validate a nameplate rating, demonstrate that a unit is available today or convert a product-storage volume into crude-distillation capacity.\n\nAn actual boundary example is Nashpa in Pakistan’s Karak district. Joint-venture participant GHPL describes an integrated oil and gas processing facility with LPG extraction, reporting gas, crude/condensate handling and LPG on different measurement bases. A liquid-handling figure expressed in barrels per day does not, by that unit alone, establish atmospheric crude-distillation capacity. Field separation, gas treatment and liquid handling must retain their own process identities in an engineering comparison. The 11 November 2026 Atlas review therefore classifies this record as field/gas processing and preserves its unknown operating state and absent crude-distillation capacity value. A historical commissioning account does not establish present availability. The direct facility record and participant’s project description allow readers to inspect that scope without inventing a well-to-plant connection.\n\nUse plant documents within their actual scope\n\nAngola’s 2024 sector yearbook separately records crude deliveries to Malongo’s crude-distillation plant and production of refined products. Those headings support process identity, but dividing the two totals without inventory and other-stream reconciliation does not close an engineering material balance. At Naftan, UNIS documents AT-8 crude distillation and a dated reconstruction project. The equipment number does not define current throughput; the page’s historical ratings need their own scopes. These reviewed Atlas records retain their existing capacity and operating-state fields. Similarly, stopped crude units and remaining MTBE/intermediate processing at Tisza must be distinguished from whole-site closure.\n\nMake the calculation auditable\n\nAn auditable balance preserves stream identity, quantity, unit, reference temperature and pressure, measurement period, inventory treatment and source. Keep measured observations separate from assumed inputs and calculated outputs. Investigate a nonzero residual through missing streams, incompatible conditions, stock movements and measurement uncertainty before calling it a process loss or gain. This example supplies no uncertainty estimate because its inputs are prescribed, not measured; additional decimal places are calculation precision only. It also supplies no refinery margin, energy-efficiency score or operating forecast. The source links, direct facility records, accessible chart table and related engineering guides let readers trace each distinct part of the analysis.\n\nTechnical and economic analysis\n\nAnalysis as of: 2026-11-11\n\nEvidence cutoff: 2026-11-11\n\nOutlook horizon: Hypothetical batch mass and volume balance\n\nIllustrative sensitivity\n\nHypothetical liquid volumes: equal total mass of 100,000 kg\n\nCalculated, not observed: V = m/ρ. Feed: 100000/850; separate products: 45000/740 + 40000/840 + 15000/980, in m³. Prescribed stable-liquid densities at assumed 15 °C and 101.325 kPa; no inventory change or additional streams. Total mass is equal; this is not a process simulation or measured plant yield.\n\nThese calculations illustrate stated assumptions; they are not observations or a calibrated forecast.\n\nFeed liquid: 117.6471 cubic metres\n\nSeparate products: total: 123.736 cubic metres","category":"energy","region":"world","topics":["oil","gas"],"eventDate":"2026-11-11","eventDateBasis":"analysis-as-of-date","publishedAt":"2026-11-11T13:10:07Z","modifiedAt":"2026-11-11T13:51:29Z","publicationBasis":"first-publication","preparedAt":"2026-11-11T13:00:08Z","sourcePublishedAt":null,"translatedAt":null,"sources":[{"url":"https://www.eia.gov/analysis/handbook/pdf/STEO%20Petroleum%20Refining%20Model.pdf","name":"EIA — Short-Term Energy Outlook petroleum refining model, January 2024","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://www.eia.gov/tools/glossary/index.php?id=Refinery%20yield","name":"EIA — Refinery yield definition and methodological scope","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://www.eia.gov/petroleum/supply/annual/volume1/pdf/psmdefs.pdf","name":"EIA — Petroleum Supply definitions","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://c2a.portais.gov.ao/uploads/ANUARIO_DO_SECTOR_DOS_RECURSOS_MINERAIS_PETROLEO_E_GAS_2024_compressed_7a0233d8dc.pdf","name":"Angola MIREMPET — 2024 sector yearbook, Malongo crude deliveries and refined-product production","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://www.unis.cz/en/references/noad","name":"UNIS — Naftan AT-8 crude-distillation reconstruction reference","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://www.tiszaujvaros.hu/images/bizjel/mol.pdf","name":"MOL — Tisza refinery public safety report, stopped crude-distillation units and remaining activities","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://wellficent.com/en/refineries/osm-way-352835608","name":"Wellficent Atlas — Malongo topping record","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://wellficent.com/en/refineries/osm-way-163923181","name":"Wellficent Atlas — Naftan record","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://wellficent.com/en/refineries/osm-relation-21185775","name":"Wellficent Atlas — Tisza record","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://ghpl.com.pk/projects/","name":"GHPL — Nashpa integrated oil/gas processing and LPG extraction","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"},{"url":"https://wellficent.com/en/refineries/osm-way-604834410","name":"Wellficent Atlas — Nashpa field/gas processing record","checkedAt":"2026-11-11"}],"translations":{"en":"https://wellficent.com/en/news/refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide","tr":"https://wellficent.com/tr/news/refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide","ar":"https://wellficent.com/ar/news/refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide","fr":"https://wellficent.com/fr/news/refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide","es":"https://wellficent.com/es/news/refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide","ru":"https://wellficent.com/ru/news/refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide","pt":"https://wellficent.com/pt/news/refinery-mass-balance-processing-gain-engineering-guide"},"corrections":[{"at":"2026-11-11T13:51:29Z","language":"en","text":"Add a source-verified Nashpa case distinguishing field oil/gas and LPG processing from crude-distillation capacity, with the participant’s project source and direct Atlas record; preserve calculations, image and first publication."}],"locations":[],"type":"analysis","analysis":{"asOf":"2026-11-11","kind":"technical-economic","chart":{"kind":"illustrative","note":{"ar":"قيم محسوبة لا مرصودة: V = m/ρ. اللقيم: 100000/850؛ المنتجات المنفصلة: 45000/740 + 40000/840 + 15000/980، بوحدة m³. كثافات سوائل مستقرة مفروضة عند 15 °C و101.325 kPa افتراضياً؛ بلا تغير مخزون أو تيارات إضافية. الكتلة الكلية متساوية؛ ليست محاكاة عملية أو مردود منشأة مقاساً.","en":"Calculated, not observed: V = m/ρ. Feed: 100000/850; separate products: 45000/740 + 40000/840 + 15000/980, in m³. Prescribed stable-liquid densities at assumed 15 °C and 101.325 kPa; no inventory change or additional streams. Total mass is equal; this is not a process simulation or measured plant yield.","es":"Cálculo, no observación: V = m/ρ. Alimentación: 100000/850; productos separados: 45000/740 + 40000/840 + 15000/980, en m³. Densidades prescritas de líquidos estables a 15 °C y 101,325 kPa supuestos; sin cambio de inventario ni corrientes adicionales. Masa total igual; no es simulación de proceso ni rendimiento medido.","fr":"Calcul, non observation : V = m/ρ. Charge : 100000/850 ; produits séparés : 45000/740 + 40000/840 + 15000/980, en m³. Densités de liquides stables prescrites à 15 °C et 101,325 kPa supposés ; ni variation de stock ni flux supplémentaire. Masse totale égale ; ni simulation de procédé ni rendement de site mesuré.","pt":"Cálculo, não observação: V = m/ρ. Alimentação: 100000/850; produtos separados: 45000/740 + 40000/840 + 15000/980, em m³. Densidades prescritas de líquidos estáveis a 15 °C e 101,325 kPa supostos; sem alteração de inventário ou correntes adicionais. Massa total igual; não é simulação de processo nem rendimento medido.","ru":"Расчёт, не наблюдение: V = m/ρ. Сырьё: 100000/850; отдельные продукты: 45000/740 + 40000/840 + 15000/980, в м³. Заданные плотности стабильных жидкостей при условных 15 °C и 101,325 кПа; без изменения запасов и дополнительных потоков. Общая масса одинакова; это не модель процесса и не измеренный выход завода.","tr":"Hesaplanmıştır, gözlem değildir: V = m/ρ. Besleme: 100000/850; ayrı ürünler: 45000/740 + 40000/840 + 15000/980, m³. Varsayımsal 15 °C ve 101,325 kPa koşullarında verilen kararlı sıvı yoğunlukları; stok değişimi veya ek akış yoktur. Toplam kütle eşittir; proses simülasyonu veya ölçülmüş tesis verimi değildir."},"rows":[{"label":{"ar":"سائل اللقيم","en":"Feed liquid","es":"Líquido de alimentación","fr":"Liquide d’alimentation","pt":"Líquido de alimentação","ru":"Жидкое сырьё","tr":"Besleme sıvısı"},"value":117.647059},{"label":{"ar":"المنتجات المنفصلة: المجموع","en":"Separate products: total","es":"Productos separados: total","fr":"Produits séparés : total","pt":"Produtos separados: total","ru":"Отдельные продукты: всего","tr":"Ayrı ürünler: toplam"},"value":123.735981}],"unit":"m³","title":{"ar":"أحجام سوائل افتراضية بكتلة كلية متساوية قدرها 100,000 kg","en":"Hypothetical liquid volumes: equal total mass of 100,000 kg","es":"Volúmenes líquidos hipotéticos: igual masa total de 100.000 kg","fr":"Volumes liquides fictifs : même masse totale de 100 000 kg","pt":"Volumes líquidos hipotéticos: massa total igual de 100.000 kg","ru":"Условные объёмы жидкостей: одинаковая суммарная масса 100 000 кг","tr":"Varsayımsal sıvı hacimleri: eşit toplam kütle, 100.000 kg"},"unitLabel":{"ar":"متر مكعب","en":"cubic metres","es":"metros cúbicos","fr":"mètres cubes","pt":"metros cúbicos","ru":"кубические метры","tr":"metreküp"}},"horizon":"Hypothetical batch mass and volume balance","horizonLabel":{"ar":"ميزان كتلة وحجم لدفعة افتراضية","en":"Hypothetical batch mass and volume balance","es":"Balance de masa y volumen de un lote hipotético","fr":"Bilan de masse et de volume d’un lot fictif","pt":"Balanço de massa e volume de um lote hipotético","ru":"Массовый и объёмный баланс условной партии","tr":"Varsayımsal parti kütle ve hacim dengesi"},"evidenceCutoff":"2026-11-11"},"relatedArticles":[{"canonicalSlug":"refinery-capacity-calendar-stream-day-engineering-guide","url":"https://wellficent.com/en/news/refinery-capacity-calendar-stream-day-engineering-guide","title":"Refinery capacity: calendar day, stream day and actual throughput","language":"en"},{"canonicalSlug":"api-gravity-density-mass-volume-engineering-guide","url":"https://wellficent.com/en/news/api-gravity-density-mass-volume-engineering-guide","title":"API Gravity, Density and Mass–Volume Conversion: A Petroleum Engineering Guide","language":"en"},{"canonicalSlug":"refinery-terminal-status-permit-data-engineering-guide","url":"https://wellficent.com/en/news/refinery-terminal-status-permit-data-engineering-guide","title":"Refinery or Fuel Terminal? How to Read Plant Status, Permits and Engineering Data","language":"en"}],"image":{"url":"https://wellficent.com/media/8f1e0a8ea6594502fd88d747e770b30372dad95db5ea2cd889447c344f50965a.webp","width":1536,"height":1024,"alt":"Conceptual refinery process area with two distillation towers, supported pipes and a separate heater; no named facility or engineered process design.","credit":"Wellficent / Codex imagegen — AI-generated conceptual illustration; not an authentic project photograph, site survey or process schematic.","licenseUrl":"https://openai.com/policies/terms-of-use/"}}